Liberalism Notes Essay

* Mainstream western philosophy. Other philosophies define themselves in relation to liberalism. * Evolution over time, though constant stress on individual freedom. Intellectual antecedents are 16th century religious reformations, 17th century scientific revolution and 18th century Enlightenment. !8th/19th century industrialisation created new class interests with commitment to reform programme – so term ‘liberalism’ dates from early 19th century. * Liberalism a reaction to 19th century absolutist regimes – hence inextricably bound up with national self-determination. Movements for national freedom/unity associated with demands for civil/political rights and for constitutional checks on government. Contrast with Britain, where parliamentary sovereignty established in 17th century – hence liberal domestic programme focused on other objectives such as parliamentary reform, religious toleration and free trade. * 19th century continental liberalism primarily a political creed – and even in Britain the centrality of free markets to liberalism has been exaggerated. Victorian liberalism stood for political reform at home and support for constitutional/national movements abroad. Inspired more by religion (radical nonconformism) than by economics. Indeed from 19th century British liberalism repudiated laisser-faire and accepted need for state intervention (‘New Liberalism’) – especially in social welfare. * Decline of Liberal Party in 20th century, but ascendancy of liberal ideas. Dominant orthodoxy until late 1970s was derived from New Liberalism – Keynes and Beveridge marked culmination of New Liberal thinking. Challenge to consensus came principally from an older free market version of liberalism – i.e. neo-liberalism. Battle of ideas post 1945 less between left and right than between old and new liberalism. * Today ‘liberal’ has different meanings in different places – UK Liberals/Liberal Democrats long seen as centre/left of centre; in EU liberalism normally associated with the right; in USA a term of abuse for radical-progressive (crypto-socialist) ideas; label also associated with free market advocates (Hayek, Friedman, New Right). And almost all mainstream ideologies can be regarded as variants of liberalism. * Liberal values/ideas of vital historical importance – central to development of British political tradition UNDERLYING ASSUMPTIONS AND VALUES OF LIBERALISM * Hall (1986) describes liberals as ‘open-minded, tolerant, rational, freedom-loving people, sceptical of the claims of tradition and established authority, but strongly committed to the values of liberty, competition and individual freedom’. 19th century liberalism ‘stood for individualism in politics, civil and political rights, parliamentary government, moderate reform, limited state intervention, and a private enterprise economy’. Widespread agreement over key liberal ideas/values – though not over their later development and interpretation. * Key assumption is individualism. Individuals (rather than nations/races/classes) are the starting point. Society an aggregate of individuals; social behaviour explained in terms of some basic assumptions about human psychology. Some liberal thinkers saw society as an artificial creation – prior state of nature where neither society nor government existed. Implication that society and government were purposefully created by individuals in pursuit of their own self-interest. So no social interests beyond the interests of individuals who make up society. * Individuals pursue their own self-interest rationally. No-one else (especially rulers) can determine the individual’s own interest. Optimistic assumption that the general pursuit of rational self-interest will produce not only individual satisfaction but also social progress and the happiness of the greatest number. * Freedom the key value – individuals must be free to pursue their own self-interest (Mill). Originally this had a negative interpretation – i.e. importance of freedom from external constraint. In early history of liberalism this entailed firm limits on power of government to interfere with individual liberty. An important application was principle of toleration – applied especially to religious belief – championed by Locke (1689) – Mill (1859) went on to demand full freedom of thought and expression. Later some liberals stressed freedom to enjoy certain benefits (positive liberty) thus entailing extensive state intervention to enlarge freedom (Green (1881) and Hobhouse (1911) and Berlin (1975)). Conflict between positive and negative views of freedom (and divergent implications) a major theme in the development of liberalism in 20th century. * Influence of egalitarian assumptions. So stress on equality before the law, and equal civil and political rights (though little agreement on what these should be in practice). Some liberals thus justify state provision of education et al – to create greater equality of opportunity. But this commitment generally accompanied by acceptance of considerable inequality of income and wealth – so in practice equality sacrificed to liberty? * Freedom entails the freedom to be unequal? But liberals deny that individual liberty is inconsistent with social justice. Self-seeking individualism, yes – but equation of might and right, no. Squaring of circle – attempt to make justice consistent with pursuit of rational self-interest (Rawls, 1971). Implies optimistic view of human nature – and thus scope for reconciling individual and collective goals. Hence liberalism differs here from traditional conservatism (more pessimistic about human nature) and socialism (deny reconciliation can be readily achieved) SUMMARY OF THE HISTORICAL WHIG-LIBERAL TRADITION * 17th century – Puritanism and Parliamentarism * Late 17th/18th century – The Whig Tradition: ‘Glorious Revolution’ (Locke), constitutional monarchy, government by consent, division of powers, religious toleration (Charles James Fox), oligarchy, mercantilism. * Late 18th/early 19th century – Radicalism: revolution (Paine), rationalism, rights of man. * Classical liberalism (Smith) – Individualism (Malthus), free markets (Ricardo), utilitarianism (Bentham), representative democracy ( James Mill). * Mid 19th/later 19th century – Victorian Liberalism: Manchester liberalism (Cobden), nonconformism (Bright), free trade (Gladstone), nationalism (Mill), municipal gospel (Joseph Chamberlain). * Late 19th century/early 20th century – New Liberalism (T.H.Green): social reform (Hobhouse), state intervention (Hobson), liberal imperialism (Edward Grey), national efficiency (Asquith), constitutional reform (Lloyd George). * 1920s to 1970s – Decline of Liberal Party but progressive liberal consensus (Keynes, Beveridge). * Late 20th century/early 21st century – Liberal revival? (Steel): European Union (Ashdown), devolution (Kennedy). THE WHIG TRADITION * Whig party in 17th century – opposed royal absolutism and championed religious dissent; support for rights of parliament and for limits on royal power. Influence of Locke (1632-1704) – belief in natural rights to life, liberty and property; government should rest on consent of governed, whose rebellion was justified if their rights were infringed. Need for constitutional limits on government, and division between legislative and executive powers – ideas enshrined (imperfectly) in British Constitution post 1688 Glorious Revolution, and later helped to inspire French and American Revolutions. * Contradictions in Whiggism. Defence of material interests – aristocrats and merchant/banking allies sought to preserve own power, property, privileges from threat of crown. No concern for massive 18th century wealth/income inequalities. And no wish to spread power beyond the propertied, so constitution they developed/defended was oligarchic/conservative. Fortunes made out of war, slave trade, India. Enclosure of land at expense of rural poor; ruthless enforcement of game laws. * Radical interpretation of Whiggism also – no taxation without representation (slogan of parl. opposition to the Stuarts) also became cry of American colonies. 1776 Declaration of Independence based on Whig principles; French revolution welcomed by most Whigs – Whig leader Charles James Fox defended its principles/championed civil liberties in England (until death in 1806). * Out of office, 1783-1830, so able to proclaim continued attachment to ‘peace, retrenchment and reform’ – unsuccessful parl. Reform bills, 1797 and 1810. Some credit claimed for abolition of slave trade, while traditional Whig demand for religious toleration reaffirmed in support for Catholic emancipation. * Defection of ‘Old Whigs’ and accommodation within Foxite remnant of party of new radical generation, committed to reform, helped to preserve/reestablish a politically progressive Whig tradition that ultimately merged into liberalism. 1832 Reform Act the culmination of the Whig tradition – yet underlines its essentially conservative nature – very modest franchise extension (some of the propertied middle classes). Yet new urban centres gained at the expense of the shires; manufacturing/commerce at the expense of land. Whig aristocrats ultimately lost influence to urban-based business and professional middle classes (the muscle behind Victorian liberalism), though Whigs remained an important, if diminishing, element within the Liberal coalition until the late 19th century. (An antidote to those who view liberalism almost exclusively in terms of free markets – neglects the Whig foundations). * The Whig-Liberal tradition is essentially a political tradition, concerned with constitutional issues/civil liberties/parl. sovereignty/ government by consent/freedom of conscience and religious observance/no taxation without representation. Whiggism served economic interests but never really an economic doctrine – not about free trade/markets. Foreign trade policy in 17th/18th centuries mercantilist – aimed to secure (through colonisation, Navigation Acts and war) the largest possible British share of world trade. RADICALS * Radical reformers – at different times, interwoven with or opposed to Whig tradition – influence on both liberalism and socialism. Radicalism a broad term, with different connotations for different periods, yet huge influence on British liberalism and 19th century Liberal party. * Paine (1737-1809) never absorbed into the Whig (later Liberal) establishment – argued that once sovereignty had been transferred from the monarch to the people, there was no logical case for restricting the franchise – his ideas the logical outcome of Whig slogans. Paine a liberal? (uncompromising individualism, sympathies with manfacturers, hostility to government). Or a socialist? (Blueprint for the Welfare State, support for graduated income tax, inspiration for Chartists). More impact in USA/France than in Britain – seen as dangerous due to uncompromising republicanism, total opposition to hereditary principle, rejection of Christianity. * ‘Philosopher radicals’ (or utilitarians) such as Bentham were in touch with progressive Whigs; Whitbread and Brougham constituted the progressive wing of the parl. party. Cobbett’s radical populism harked back to pre-industrial age; Bright (Quaker manufacturer) belonged to new generation of post 1832 MPs – himself displaced by new breed of radicals who took over the Liberal party in latter part of 19th century. * Radical pressure reinforced Whig commitment to parliamentary reform in 1832, and later. Association with religious dissent in 2nd half of 19th century imbued it with strong moral character – fuelled demands for non-denominational state education and C of E disestablishment. Also strongly associated with the ‘municipal gospel’ in local government. Fusion of Whigs and radicals with former Peelites created Liberal Party, 1859. Whigs continued to dominate Liberal Cabinets, but radicals dominated increasingly important grass roots level, especially after 1859 formation of the National Liberal Federation. * ‘Yet it was a relatively restrained, religiously inspired, and peculiarly British strand of radicalism which eventually prevailed rather than the fiercely rationalist, republican radicalism of Paine.’ CLASSICAL ECONOMICS AND UTILITARIANISM * Intellectual (rather than moral) influence on Victorian liberalism of classical economists and utilitarians. Smith (1732-90), Malthus (1766-1834) and Ricardo (1772-1823) established importance of markets in the allocation/distribution of resources. And Bentham’s (1748-1832) utility principle was applied to a wide range of institutions/practices – fiercely rationalist analysis (‘What use is it?’). ‘The greatest happiness of the greatest number’ was ‘the only right and proper end of government’. * Both stemmed from the 18th century Enlightenment; both shared the individualist/rationalist assumptions underpinning liberalism; each tended to share the implications of the other’s approach. Mill had a foot in both camps. * But modern neo-liberals argue it is only Smith and Hume (18th century Scottish Enlightenment) who represent the true spirit of liberalism. Bentham et al are blamed for ideas which ‘provided a warrant for much later illiberal interventionist policy’ (Gray, 1986). The ‘greatest happiness’ principle is seen as a breach of free market economics, since the principle of representative democracy (advocated by Mill who converted Bentham) might involve electoral pressures for interference with free market forces; moreover, neo-liberals are opposed to Bentham’s advocacy of bureaucracy, and thus the appointment of qualified, salaried public officials. The contradictory implications of Benthamite thinking are seen in the utilitarian-influenced Poor Law Amendment Act (1834) – the able-bodied poor must enter a workhouse where their condition would be ‘less eligible’ than that of the lowest independent labourer (free market incentives); at the same time theAct required a comprehensive network of administrative areas and officials, and a large degree of central control and inspection (bureaucracy). * Hence modern neo-liberals are critical of Bentham’s ‘constructivist rationalism’ (Hayek, 1975); Gray (1986) claims that it ‘had an inherent tendency to spawn policies of interventionist social engineering’. Their refusal to recognise Bentham as a liberal involves an artificial conception of liberalism which has little in common with the Whig/Liberal tradition. * The major classical economists contributed significantly to Victorian liberalism, but their ideas were extensively vulgarised. Even Smith allowed for significant exceptions to his ‘invisible hand’. Popularisers such as Harriet Martineau, Edward Baines and Samuel Smiles reduced the principles of classical economics to laissez-faire (for governments) and self-help (for individuals). Public policy, moreover, was never consistently governed by laissez-faire – look at the various Factory Acts, Public Health Acts and Acts to regulate the railways and banks passed in the early Victorian period. VICTORIAN LIBERALISM * Although the term ‘liberal’ was applied from the early 19th century, the Liberal Party emerged only in the 1850s from a party realignment of Whigs, radicals and Peelite Conservatives. Gladstone (1809-98), originally a Con. follower of Peel, the embodiment of Victorian liberalism. Domination of Liberal party, and shaped in his own image; he became more radical and populist with age. Also inspired by Christian moral fervour – struck chord among nonconformists. So Gladstonian liberalism a moral crusade (Vincent, 1966). * Several strands. Parliamentary reform – derived from Whig tradition; advocacy of Bright, then Gladstone turned it into a populist cause. Proposals for modest franchise extension developed into radical demands for full manhood suffrage. Nonconformist strand – while the 1860s parliamentary party was still overwhelmingly Anglican, the Liberals were becoming ‘the party of the nonconformist conscience’ (Vincent, 1966).Nonconformist pressures spawned the National Education League (to campaign for a national, free and secular system of education), which provided the model for the National Liberal Federation (1877) which established a national organisation for he Liberal party, and tipped it decisively towards radical nonconformism. By the 1880s the PLP (and the party in the country) was predominantly nonconformist. * Support for liberal and nationalist movements in Europe, especially Italian unification, helped create Palmerston’s 1859 government and kept it intact; Gladstone campaigned against the Bulgarian atrocities, bringing him out of premature retirement and into close collaboration with the nonconformists. The religious fervour behind his mission to pacify Ireland both split the party and strengthened the moral element in liberalism. * ‘Manchester liberalism’ also quite influential in the party after 1859. Free trade was established as a liberal principle. Gladstone, as Chancellor, built on earlier work of Cobden and Bright (Anti Corn Law League, 1846 – repeal of Corn Laws reflected transfer of power from landed to manufacturing interests) by abolishing a range of duties; Cobden negotiated Anglo-French trade treaty of 1860. But free trade did not entail laissez-faire in domestic policy – Cobden’s opposition to Factory Acts increasingly out of tune with the times. * Increased state intervention entailed by liberal practice – major reforms in education, the army, the law and civil service, 1868-74. Third Reform Act, 1884 – triumph of radical demands over Whig caution. Chamberlain’s ‘Unauthorised Programme’ (1885) and the ‘Newcastle Programme’ (1891) marked decisive shift towards radicalism. * Pace of change too fast for some – Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) combined laissez-faire economics with evolutionary survival of the fittest; opposition to most forms of state intervention being introduced by Liberals at national and local level; but out of step. By contrast, Mill (1806-73) key transitional figure in evolution of liberalism. ‘The sole end for which mankind are warranted, individually or collectively, in interfering with the liberty of any of their number is self-protection’ (1859) – effectively a plea for minimal state intervention (Mill denounced censorship and argued for full liberty of thought and expression). Yet his commitment to individuality (and advocacy of democracy) caused him to fear the ‘tyranny of the majority’ and ‘the despotism of custom’, seen as a greater threat to individuality than deliberate actions by governments. So a ‘watershed thinker’ in the development of liberalism from indivi dualism to collectivism (Gray, 1986). LIBERALISM, CAPITALISM AND DEMOCRACY * Liberalism closely associated with rise of industrial capitalism – preeminently the creed of the owners of industrial/financial capital. Its political objectives focused on the enfranchisement of the new middle classes and the transfer of political power to the major manufacturing urban centres. No coincidence that Liberal party finally emerged in the 1850s when Britain’s industrial and commercial dominance was unchallenged, and the working classes were ununionised and unenfranchised. Even further back, protestant dissent (and especially puritanism) embodied ideas favourable to the spirit of capitalist accumulation. * But British liberalism cannot be simply derived from capitalism. The leading Whig MPs, who were still prominent in 19th century Liberal governments, were large landowners; many rank and file Liberals were not manufacturers but small shopkeepers and tradesmen; many of the working class were attached to the Liberal cause (even before the vote). In practice liberalism a coalition of class interests. Many of its causes – temperance, religious disestablishment, home rule – were scarcely connected with the interests of capitalism. Leading liberal thinkers – Mill, Hobhouse, Keynes, Beveridge – gave capitalism only qualified support. * Establishment of capitalist economy accompanied by the gradual establishment of a liberal democratic system – no coincidence. Indeed, Marxist view is that rep. democracy offers best shell for capitalism – so hardly surprising that party of the bourgeoisie was at forefront of parliamentary reform movement, though stopping short of support for full rep. democracy. Gray (1986, and a neo-liberal) accounts for this by arguing that unlimited democracy ‘cannot be liberal government since it respects no domain of independence or liberty as being immune to invasion by governmental authority’. * But representative democracy in early 19th century was largely untried, so not surprising liberals were apprehensive about what was a radical minority cause. Yet Paine advocated full manhood suffrage, and Mill argued for extension to women of full political rights. Once the logic of reform was accepted and liberals became committed to the theory and practice of rep. democracy their conversion was wholehearted, and seen by many (such as Chamberlain) as a justification for abandoning earlier limitations to government intervention. Herbert Samuel (1902) argued a reformed state could be entrusted with social reform – ‘Now democracy has been substituted for aristocracy as the root principle of the constitution †¦.the State today is held worthy to be the instrument of the community in many affairs for which the State of yesterday was clearly incompetent.’. Acceptance of democracy a critical step towards New Liberalism. Inexorable logic by which liberals progressed from parliamentary reform to representative democracy, to state intervention – and the apparent abandonment of some of the principles associated with earlier liberalism. THE NEW LIBERALISM * Flourished in late 19th/early 20th centuries – involved state economic/social reform which repudiated laissez-faire liberalism. Controversial development – natural extension and refinement of the old principles OR culmination of ‘anti-liberal elements’ present in the liberal tradition from the 1840s in the work of Mill. (Socialist critics dismiss NL as a forlorn attempt to revive an outmoded ideology –Arblaster, 1984). * Origins of NL? Influence of Hegelian idealism? Party project to win working class support and head off rising Labour challenge? Need to modernise British economy/society and thus to compete more effectively? Or simply a rationalisation of the substantial growth in government intervention that had already occurred? * Key NL thinkers were Green, Hobson and Hobhouse. Green (1836-82) an Oxford philosopher and Hegelian; Hobson an economist who believed under-consumption to be the cause of unemployment; Hobhouse (1864-1929) a philosopher/sociologist. Common aim to redefine old liberal values in line with new political practice. So freedom, according to Green, meant a positive power or capacity – and must be enjoyed by all. Hobson referred to ‘the provision of equal opportunities for self-development’ – so state intervention might be needed to remove obstacles. (But ‘each enlargement of the authority and functions of the State must justify itself as an enlargement of personal liberty, interfering with individuals only in order to set free new and larger opportunities’). Hobhouse justified interference with the market to secure ‘the right to work’ and ‘the right to a living wage’, given the powerlessness of individual workers to secure such rights. * Liberal politicians were more cautious than the NL ideologues, though were increasingly interventionist, both at national and at local level. Locally, enthusiasm for civic improvements amounted to a ‘municipal gospel’ – city government seen as a test-bed for policies which could be applied nationally. Chamberlain (1836-1914) a radical Liberal mayor of Birmingham before moving to national politics (later split with Gladstone and allied with the Conservatives) – campaign for the ‘Unauthorised Programme’ (1895) based on LG experience – hospitals, schools, museums, libraries, galleries, baths, parks, etc. Explicit rejection of laissez-faire, which was equivalent to acceptance of ‘selfish wealth’ alongside poverty; accepted charge that proposed reforms were in practice socialism. Radical, reforming approach of 1895 UA echoed in 1891 Newcastle programme. At national level, little opportunity to implement the NL programme before the Liberal landslide victory of 1906. * 1906-14 Liberal Government – key figures were Asquith and Lloyd George. Welfare reforms included provision of school meals and OAPs, and LG’s introduction of national health and unemployment insurance (1911). LG’s 1909 budget involved some modest income/wealth redistribution through the land tax and progressive income tax. And Churchill’s labour exchanges showed willingness to intervene in the labour market. * Key stimulus was rising challenge of labour; historians disagree over electoral appeal of state welfare – advocated by leaders of organised working class, but not necessarily popular with working class voters, and frightened many middle class voters. Rosebery (briefly PM post Gladstone) thought Newcastle programme cost the party votes, though his Liberal Imperialism appealed to a chauvinistic working class, while his more modest economic/social reform programme promoted ‘National Efficiency’ and appealed to progressive businessmen set on competing successfully with the rising economies of Germany, USA and Japan. DECLINE OF THE LIBERAL PARTY – AND TRIUMPH OF LIBERALISM? * NL failed to prevent decline of Liberal party. WW1 undermined Liberal internationalism. Pressures towards collectivism/coercion associated with modern warfare created huge strains for Liberal individualism – especially on symbolic issue of conscription. And after WW1 many Liberal causes (religious nonconformism, temperance, free trade) seemed less relevant. * Yet ‘the disintegration of the Liberal party signifies the triumph of liberalism .. if liberalism is now partly invisible, this is because so many of its assumptions and ideals have infiltrated political practice and current awareness.’ (Eccleshall, 1986). Culmination of liberal thought seen in Beveridge’s social welfare proposals and in Keynesian economic theory – provided basis of the post WW2 ideological consensus. 1942 Beveridge Report based on insurance principle, and was in keeping with spirit of LG’s 1911 insurance scheme – though much more comprehensive. Keynes’ economic theory provided for macro government intervention but allowed markets to operate freely at the micro level. Both B and K favoured private ownership of the means of production. ‘It was precisely this kind of state intervention to promote employment and welfare provision which was favoured by earlier NLs like Green and Hobhouse. * Other liberal ideas long absorbed into British culture. 1960s changes in the law – on divorce, homosexuality and abortion; some relaxation of censorship – all compatible with Mill’s 1859 proclamation of principles of individual liberty. Later laws on equal pay, equal opportunities, and race and sex discrimination in 1970s fully consistent with liberal ideology. Thus a ‘progressive liberal orthodoxy’ was established, with support from all parties. * Apparent triumph of economic/social ideas of NL complicated by revival (from 1970s onwards) of the older free market liberalism associated with classical economics. Hence modern use of term ‘liberal’ requires a qualifying prefix. Hence progressive (or social) liberals advocate penal reform, civil liberties, protection of rights of minorities, freedom of expression, and open government – unashamed economic interventionists. Neo-liberals (Hayek, Friedman) favour free market ideas – on the right of the political spectrum, with key influence on the New Right and on Thatcherite conservatism. THE IDEAS OF MODERN LIBERALS AND LIBERAL DEMOCRATS * Modest revival in Liberal party fortunes began in 1960s; accelerated in mid 1970s; given impetus by alliance with SDP in 1983 and 1987; merger to form LDs. Now involved in coalition in Scotland and Wales, have large role in English LG, and 52 MPs after 2001 General Election. Accompanied by revival in associated political ideas. * Policies of Liberals/LDs involve continuation of NL tradition – welfare capitalism, with strong stress upon individual rights. Distinctive Liberal policies included early advocacy of UK membership of EU, devolution, incomes policies, partnership in industry, electoral and other constitutional reform, and a focus on the community (linked with Liberal successes in LG). * Postwar Liberal party did little to extend/develop liberalism – no startling new ideas or major thinkers. Neither electoral successes nor failures owed much to liberal ideology. Key decisions for leadership have been tactical, not ideological – whether to accept Heath’s coalition offer in 1974, whether to support the Labour government after 1977, how to handle the SDP breakaway from Labour in 1981, and how soon to promote a merger with the SDP. In fact, more intellectual ferment among the SDP, and their post -merger remnants. Dividing line between NL and Fabian socialism has always been thin? Hobhouse talked of ‘liberal socialism’ in 1911; Hobson joined Labour after WW1. Thinner still following revisionist tendencies on the Labour Right in the 1950s, and the SDP breakaway in 1981. Hence the Liberal/SDP Alliance (and later merger) can be seen as the practical expression of an ideological convergence that was already well under way (Behrens, 1989). B ut ultimately it was the Liberals that swallowed the SDP, and not the other way round – so the modern LDs are the clear lineal descendants of the old Liberal party. * Paradoxically, as fortunes of the Liberals/LDs have risen, LD ideas have become less distinctive. For most of post WW2 period Liberals adopted an intermediate position between Con and Lab. Briefly, in early 1980s, Liberals (and allies) seemed to offer a distinctive middle way between Thatcherism and left wing socialism. Since then Lab has reoccupied the centre ground previously vacated, leaving the LDs with little ideological space and few distinctive ideas or policies – on the management of the economy, constitutional reform, Europe, defence and foreign policy the differences between the LDs and Lab are ARGUABLY more of degree than kind. * Under Ashdown’s leadership, coalition with Labour seemed logical, even likely, given Blair’s keenness to heal the divisions on the centre-left which had left the Cons dominant for most of the 20th century. Coalitions in LG and in the devolved bodies provide continuing impetus – but sheer scale of Lab’s victories in 1997 and 2001 (and resistance within both parties) have weakened the project. LDs have pursued a more independent and critical line under Kennedy, without yet returning to earlier policy of equidistance between Lab and Con. * Attempts made to articulate a distinctive LD philosophy in these unpromising political circumstances – by Wallace (1997), Russell (1999) and Ballard (2000). Yet terminology employed – cooperation, working with others, partnership politics, community – shared by New Labour and progressive Conservatives. Higher profile of LDs has drawn attention to considerable diversity of views in the party – ‘free market liberals, social liberals, conservatives with a social conscience and dissatisfied ex-Labour voters, greens, anarchists †¦.’ (Ballard, 2000). Shows tolerance and inclusiveness? But not ideological coherence. The real problem is that there is now little distinctive ideological ground for the LDs to occupy, but this underlines the widespread acceptance of liberal ideas across mainstream British political parties.

Compare and Contrast: Hound of the Baskervilles

Heather Scott Professor Sevart English Composition 101 11-21-12 Arthur Ignatius Conan Doyle, author of Hound of the Baskervilles, was born on May 22, 1859, in Edinburgh, Scotland. The Doyle’s were a prosperous Irish-Catholic family, who had a prominent position in the world of Art. Charles Altamont Doyle, Arthur's father, a chronic alcoholic, was the only member of his family, who apart from fathering a brilliant son, never accomplished anything of note.There was little money in the family and even less harmony on account of his father's excesses and erratic behavior. Arthur's touching description of his mother's beneficial influence is also poignantly described in his biography, â€Å"In my early childhood, as far as I can remember anything at all, the vivid stories she would tell me stand out so clearly that they obscure the real facts of my life. † After Arthur reached his ninth birthday, the wealthy members of the Doyle family offered to pay for his studies.By 1876, graduating at the age of seventeen, Arthur Doyle, With his innate sense of humor and his sportsmanship, having ruled out any feelings of self-pity, Arthur was ready and willing to face the world and make up for some of his father's shortcomings. Despite his abnormal up rearing, Doyle became a legendary author and his writings became inspirations for many films about Sherlock Holmes. In his original novel, Doyle describes Mr. Jack Stapleton as a thin, bookish looking man who’s temper is uncontrollable in certain situations.His violence in the book however differs greatly from his violence in the film. In the book, Mr. Stapleton threatens his wife to go along with his devious plot, but never lays a hand on her until she discovers he has brought the beast to their home. Once she has seen this, she threatens to reveal his diabolical plans and he quickly reacts by tying her up and gagging her that way she can make no noise. As shown in the film, when they are at the party togethe r, Mrs. Stapleton wishes to no longer be a part of his schemes and he grabs her by the neck reminding her that he is in charge of her decisions nd that they must finish the plans together. That next day Mrs. Stapleton had obvious bruises on her neck from his grip. Also in the film, towards the end the detectives find Mrs. Stapleton hanged rather than tied up. His hostility towards Holmes is also different in the movie from the book. In the book, he keeps control of himself when he discovers the beast has killed the wrong man and that Holmes is, in fact, in London. In the film, Mr. Stapleton becomes very anxious when he realizes Holmes is no longer at the party and he fears that he may be snooping around.Indeed, Stapleton finds Holmes raiding through his personal belongings and is instantly hostile. Towards the end of the movie, when Holmes is caught in the quicksand of the moor Mr. Stapleton, after fighting with Holmes and Watson, he returns to end Holmes life with a single shot. In the book, he always avoided confrontation with Holmes because he found him superior to himself. A second comparison between the book and film would be Mr. Stapleton’s jealousy throughout the storyline.AS he struggles already with controlling his temper, it becomes too much when he sees his wife, whom is pretending to be his sister, speaking intimately with Sir Henry. Not only does this increase his want to kill him, but gives him greater reason too because without Sir Henry in the way, Jack Stapleton becomes the next heir to the Baskerville inheritance. In the book, he keeps most of his jealousy hidden other than the bit that is obvious to Watson at dinner. In the movie, Stapleton seems to take out his jealousy and anger out on Mrs. Stapleton until he has the right time to release the Hound on Sir Henry.His jealous behavior shines through clearly in the movie because you can see Stapleton’s facial expressions towards Sir Henry. He sees him as a threat to the money tha t, according to him, is rightfully his own. This hostility leads to slip ups in his planning making it easier for Holmes to figure out that Stapleton was the enemy all along. As goes with every good novel, the movie always depicts characters differently and most of the time the books do a far better job. Author Conan Doyle is, and always will be known as the man who created the legend of Sherlock Holmes.

Historically, attitudes toward alcohol cannot be separated from Essay

Historically, attitudes toward alcohol cannot be separated from ideologies and attitudes toward other social issues. To wh - Essay Example For instance, the role or significance of alcohol has changed extensively while the ways in which it is made have remained relatively rigid. This paper outlines that attitudes towards the consumption of alcohol are linked to specific attitudes and ideologies in the society. Alcohol consumption has been taken to imply other social perspectives in different cultures and eras. This will be expounded upon in the paper to identify what influenced these perspectives and what the consequences were to the consumption of liquor. The perspectives that some may have held towards alcohol may differ to those of other in another culture or within the same culture but with different views. Alcohol and Social Occasions Many Christians or those knowledgeable about the bible may be aware of an occasion where Jesus turned water into wine. The occasion was a wedding and the people had run out of wine. This had the potency to ruin the party. In history, alcohol has been associated with celebrations parti cularly those fully endorsed by the society such as weddings or the birth of a baby. The society would come together during such occasions and drink together, an action that had a deeper meaning that many would apprehend today. It was a way of bringing the community closer, in a way that it would bond and become more united towards achieving tasks. In those times, the community worked as one towards performing specific roles which may be equated to the family set up today. Consumption of alcohol was not as straight forward as it is today. It had to be consented by the â€Å"form of leadership† in the community and done in public by all those permitted to drink. This usually took place during occasions that had the theme of celebration such as after a hefty harvest or during a union between a man and a woman. It was hence impossible to separate such occasions and alcohol, particularly so because it was preserved for such occasions. People would be waiting for them to come and would not miss. It also performed pivotal roles in bringing together the community, this one of the most important unit that determined prosperity or failure. A community that would not come together to drink and rejoice after a favorable occasion was feeble and would not accomplish much. Alcohol and Social Status As stated earlier, the decision to brew beer (one of the most common form of alcohol at the time along with grape wine) was made by the community. This is not to say that the entire community would deliberate over the matter, rather the select few with the obligation to made decisions for the community as a whole. This meant that these individuals had a higher power (status) as compared to the ordinary civilians. This community set up is mutual to many cultures, which means that this group of was given different names and obligations. What is common in almost all cases is that social gatherings such as the one that would require the provision of alcohol were deliberated by these individuals. It is factual to assert that alcohol was largely linked to social class. Decisions on whether to drink, even on an individual level were dependent on whether those of a higher social status agreed to the idea. As this form of community slowly disintegrated and alcohol was incessantly availed to everyone at a cost, only those of the upper social class that could afford it continued to control it. In some way, it may be viewed that much did not change. Alcohol continued to be

The movie rating system should be revised Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The movie rating system should be revised - Essay Example However, the rating system is not viewed as an effective and substantial body and has been criticized for a variety of reasons. The first criticism against the motion picture rating system has been presented by film critic Ebert who claims the rating system to place more importance on the minute details of the movie rather than the movie itself. This argument stands against the system's choice of picking on intricate details of the movie like the number of times a profane word is used or the number of scenes containing violence. This allows the rating system to escape from the throes of presenting the true message of the movie. For instance, a movie with sex and violence could be discussing the consequences these activities could teach to the audience. Adult ratings should be limited to those movies which show an immense degree of sex and violence. This would help in the removal of NC-17 which allows a greater number to access a variety of movies. Ratings of movies like Passion of the Christ should not have ratings that limit individuals under 17 from watching a movie (Ebert 2004). This is because the rating system creates a loss in the true message of the movie in its quest to censor the content. Another idea that stands up against movie rating systems is the belief that filmmakers are forced to change movies because the content affects the personal sensibilities of the members of the censorship board. Farber, a film critic talks of how filmmakers were threatened with an X rating to make them remove content which offended the board members (1972). This is seen as biased behavior on the part of the rating systems board because of their inability to provide a decision based solely on the judgment of creating a rating that will be friendly to the audience. Instead, the board is apt on creating ratings that will inadvertently be influenced by their personal beliefs and opinions. Another idea that talks of the flaws in the rating system is the lack of public opinion that is involved. There is a call by both conservative and liberal parties to make the rating system's methods and techniques more public thus allowing a degree of public scrutiny into their decisions. However, this idea seems a little impossible because it is impossible to pin point exact standards set up by the rating system. Movies today touch a variety of topics and issues. It is impossible to set up every method up for the public because it might not apply to each movie. Thus, setting up a public forum would be problematic because every individual's ideas vary and this could be chaotic and unhelpful. The rating system is criticized for its inability to present an equal treatment to the independent studios. This criticism lies on the belief that independent studios are not meted out with the same ratings as those given to major studios. Thus, independent studios are given a harsher rating system which is a great setback in the creation of new and diverse films. An instance of this is evident in the rating given to the movie Saints and Soldiers. The movie was created by an independent studio and created a limited amount of sex, profanity and violence. Yet, a single scene where a character is killed made the movie get a PG-13 rating (Deseret News). This is an obvious sign of bias against independent studios which can be of great harm to the creativity and emergence of unique ideas in the motion picture industry. Thus

Reflective Practice Research Proposal Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Reflective Practice - Research Proposal Example A brief survey of the literature shows that the methodology, results and reportage of reflective practices vary and are highly interdependent. This project will survey the available literature as extensively as possible, categorize the different aspects of the practices, methodologies, and reported outcomes and attempt to extract a general understanding of what works and what does not work and why. From the results of this intensive survey of the literature we should be able to come to some conclusions concerning reflective practices. From these conclusions we can identify any elements which may be missing in the body of literature which might suggest directions for future study. In addition, we expect to be able to create a template of sorts to aid teachers in developing and documenting reflective practice in order to make this process easier and more useful. This will include a synthesized description of the role of the reflective practitioner in education, an informative chart showing reflective practice strategies, the benefits and problems or disadvantages of each plus an analysis of various instruments/tools used to exercise reflective practice. Many textbooks have described and analyzed reflective practices, and there have been some influential texts which concentrated only upon this subject, such as those of Osterman, K., & Kottkamp, R. (2004) and York-Barr, J., Sommers, W., Ghere, G., & Montie, J. (2005). However, there needs to be ongoing study of these practices in order to have continuous evaluation and ongoing availability of current information. One major purpose projects like this can serve is to filter the available literature and offer some guidance to those who wish to read more about reflective practices. An initial search on survey overview of reflective practice in education resulted in, at the least with the exclusion

Neo Liberalism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Neo Liberalism - Essay Example There are many problems that it has introduced, but has been unable to provide answers. There had been mixed reactions as some of the happenings had been good and some of them were unpleasant. Dictatorships had been giving way to liberalism and this is definitely a positive step in the right direction. How long it might last, one cannot answer today. There exists another fear that Neo liberalism could widen the gap between the poor and rich. It is felt that World Bank, Inter American Development Bank and International Monetary Fund like powerful monetary institutions have imposed a situation of reducing profit rates felicitating the corporate few who are in bad business ventures, to revive their economic position. "Neo-liberalism is a response to a dual crisis that emerged in the mid-1970s for the ruling class. On the one hand capitalists faced a 'crisis of accumulation' - the capitalist system was stagnating and profits had fallen from the rates achieved immediately after the Second World War. Secondly, a rising tide of workers' struggle in the 1960s and 1970s posed a threat to the political power of the ruling elite" http://www.socialistreview.org.uk/article.phparticlenumber=9655 It is difficult to guess if Neo liberalism would bring the same future to all cities, or the result would be diverse in accordance with the city. But we can make very clear assumptions that it would definitely make the cities look and feel alike. There is a suggestion that the growth of cities is connected with the growth rate of national economy and most of the economic activities are focussed in the cities. "Indeed by the end of the 1980s the World Bank claimed that over half of all GDP in the greater majority of developing countries could be traced to urban areas", (Allen, 1999, p.248). The link between cities, particularly the cities in the developing countries, is a new one. As there had never been anything sweeping the earth the way globalisation did, it is understandable. No doubt, at one time, Imperialism ruled the world, but compared to the all-pervasive nature of neo-liberalism, effects of Imperialism were remote, and were limited to the particular colonies, even though there was a great impact on world trade and business. It lacked the power and all-grabbing tendencies of today's financial and marketing institutions. "The ideological persuasion exerted increasingly by these and other institutions mirrors the types of influence at work at the level of the global economy" (Allen, p.248). It has made the Governments to take a different view of their cities and attend to all needs of the cities mainly with the intention of fitting them into the global network, so that they could be showcased as their trophies and achievements of Neo liberalism. Some thinkers, economists and sociologists are of the opinion that cities should be limited and their unbridled growth should be curbed. They say this without taking into consideration the importance of cities in history or their current position as significant players economically, socially and politically. Another assumption is that the role of markets and economic institutions and their reforms are compatible with the city life of the inhabitants. Persisting doubt is if macroeconomic policies and regulations would be sufficient for the growth of the cities.

Effects ofSarbanes Oxley Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Effects ofSarbanes Oxley - Research Paper Example In 2001, Enron Corporation, a USA energy company situated in Houston, hit its investors immensely when it filed for bankruptcy as a result of major corporate accounting forgeries carried out by its senior management and its auditor. The bankruptcy resulted in an estimated loss of almost $11 billion for its shareholders and the World saw a company with almost $63 billion market capitalization, file for bankruptcy (the largest dissolution in US history at that time) (Sterling, 2002). The major reason of the collapse of Enron Corporation was because of its fabricating and dubious accounting shams. The senior management of Enron was actively involved in recording fake Revenues within its accounting records. The practice carried out at the company saw the senior management of the company record Revenues on the basis of the present value of net future cash flows. This resulted in phony accounting treatment and misleading reports which was needed to match profits and cash in order to satisf y the shareholders. The company saw its stock price of $90 in the year 2000 fall to a meager $1 per share by the end of November 2001 (Rapoport et al, 2009; Sterling, 2002). This huge calamity saw the initiation of several new legislations including the Sarbanes Oxley Act, which was brought into existence in order improve the accuracy and the reliability of the financial statements and to provide a transparent picture to the shareholders (Rapoport et al, 2009). The legislation was passed by the US Congress in 2002 with a special focus of resuscitating investor confidence in corporations and others serving the capital markets. The title of the act clearly states its purpose. According to the title, SOX is â€Å"an act to protect investors by improving the accuracy and reliability of corporate disclosures made pursuant to the securities laws, and for other purposes.† (Golden et al, 2006) The act is named after US Senator Paul Sarbanes and US Representative Michael Oxley. The le gislation was put forwards in order to provide a stringent role towards any unscrupulous act. The act carried severe punitive measures against the wrongdoers and it provided increased powers to both the top management and the auditors. The act also enhanced its oversight role of the board of directors. The Act was introduced to look after several issues such as scrutinizing the Auditors, Directors’ and the top management’s roles. The act helped in reducing the conflict of interest between the shareholders, auditors, directors and the top management. Before its promulgation, auditors were self-regulated and were not answerable to any legislative or accounting body. Following the launch of the act, the Sarbanes Oxley legislation acted as a supervisory body which ensured that transparency was carried out while auditing the financial statements of a company. The Sarbanes Oxley act helped in overcoming the transparency issue. A research carried out by Stefan Arping and Zach arias Sautner concluded that the act helped in improving transparency. The research was carried out over a few US firms that were comparable on the basis of their operations (Arping & Sautner, 2010). The Section 404 of the act has also been under the limelight for quite some time now. The Section 404 requires companies to produce an Internal Control Report reporting over the adequacy of the internal controls and the financial reporting

Platos Theory of Knowledge Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Platos Theory of Knowledge - Essay Example The theory rests in the myth that describes people chained within a cave. The only images they see are the shadows of objects and animals held in front of a fire that is behind them that reflects on the cave walls in front of them. That is all they had ever seen so that is what they believe to be real. One day a man escaped the cave and went outside. With the sun he saw what was real in the world and realized all he ever saw were just shadows. He went back to the men in the cave and told them all this. He told them that they too could see the outside if they broke free of their chains but they didn't believe him. The environment of the cave to Plato symbolizes the physical world of appearances. Escaping into the sun-filled world means the transition into the real world that is full and perfect. A world where things are not viewed only in a material sense. It is here that the whole of Plato's philosophy is summed up. Plato's theory of knowledge is devoted to definitions of science and knowledge. Developing the argument from the lower consciousness to the higher consciousness, in which perception, opinion, reasoning are closely examined. Cornford F.M in his interpretations "Plato's Theory of Knowledge", the phrase "degrees of reality" is found in many commentaries to describe the aforementioned hierarchy. Vlastos' "A Metaphysical Paradox" and "Degrees of Reality in Plato." Cornford describes this as "a distinct order of realities." Plato's ethical theory rests on the assumption that virtue is knowledge and can be taught, which has to be understood in terms of his theory of Forms. One of his famous arguments is that to "know the good is to do the good". Being the world of forms, which is the proper object of knowledge. Of interest to our discussion is his later work that features Socrates and his pupil theaetetus in a dialogue named after the latter. Theaetetus is introduced to us as a valiant and a hero of the battle of Corinth and of the dialogue. He is a disciple of Theodorus, a reputed geometrician, whose specialization is thus indicated to be the propaedeutic to philosophy. Theaetetus is introduced as wounded and also as having several similarities with Socrates, same contrast sharp mind and the unattractive features. Theodorus presents the younger man as courageous, intelligent and selfless. These qualities are seen as dialogue heats up.. Socrates is impressed by these credentials and invites theaetetus in a witty discussion on different issues. After overcoming the initial sense of wonder, he rises to the occasion, and begins to follow the flow of the discussion eventually he's able to comprehend the consequences of his own answers. The question about the "nature of knowledge" opens his mind and encourages him to think not only in a mathematical sense which he is used to but also in metaphysical sense. Eventually it dawns on him that "there are universal conceptions of being, likeness, sameness, number, which the mind contemplates in her." In the dialogues Plato devotes himself to coining definitions of knowledge, conception, science and the like but at the same time tearing down the same definitions in an attempt to invoke in the mind of the student a desperation that will cause critical thinking. In the first part when asked his opinion

Pollutions and External Costs Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Pollutions and External Costs - Case Study Example The externality can be considered as one of the most important concepts which can be perceived on the basis of different aspects. The externality can refer to the cost of the factors that can affect business transactions mainly the group that used the factor to be able to be related to a group. Thus, the externalities then can be perceived in cases wherein the group being supplied gains profit (Gibson, 1996). Due to the fact that every factor and component of the environment even the economic aspect can be considered to have a price. For that matter, the sale of the products being produced can be of great effect to the supplier company, although it can be considered as an indirect effect. In the study of the effects of externality, it is important to determine that the effects of the said concept can either be positive or negative (Gibson, 1996; Hussen, 2000). A negative externality can be perceived when the side of the production or consumption of a particular product. One of the most significant examples of a negative externality in consumption is pollution. In such case then, externalities can be considered as an effect of the failure of the 3rd group. On the other hand, externality can also be positive wherein indirect actions in the society can improve the chance for good transactions. An example is the development of different types of remedies and medication (Gibson, 1996; Hussen, 2000). The presence of externalities can be questioned in terms of efficiency. This can be attributed to the fact that a system targets the efficient use of every part and every material. Due to the fact that externalities are based on the indirect effects of different factor, a sign of being weak, the study of the implications of externalities is a vital issue (Gibson, 1996; Hussen, 2000).

Report on Ethical Decision-Making Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Report on Ethical Decision-Making - Essay Example Critics point to â€Å"Big Pharma† manipulating research in order to increase their profit margins. These are all very important and major contemporary issues that must be addressed when we look at a topic as broad and profound as pharmaceuticals and pharmacology. Questions I asked myself included: Do pharmaceutical companies have duties and obligations to society? Is pharmacological care a right rather than a service to be sold on the market place? These are obviously very emotionally engaging questions because they involve life and death. It was very hard for me to come to a conclusion about them. The best illustration of this ethical dilemma.is the question of HIV/AIDS in Africa. Do American drug companies have the responsibility to provide very cheap drugs to people in Africa who are infected. If the drugs were given to someone for free they might live longer—but since they don’t have money they certainly will die. I wrestled with this one long and hard. This aspect of the debate really illustrates the idea of a social obligation to people above and beyond the notion of a profit margin. Critics of course will say that if drugs were given away for free there would be no money for research and so more people would die because there would be no drugs for their disease. This too would be a serious problem. In the end I decided that it was right for pharmaceutical companies to advertise and sell their products for a profit. It took a lot of time and consideration for me to reach this conclusion. As of 2008, the United States is the world leader in medical research, especially in pharmaceutical development. American companies create most of the world’s most innovative drugs and the FDA stamp of approval is sought by drug makers worldwide because this organization is so respected. This is an interesting point and one that may contradict in some sense the idea of Big Pharma having a social contract. The only developed

Design of Water-Based Fire Protection Systems Essay Example for Free

Design of Water-Based Fire Protection Systems Essay Storage Tanks are the tanks in which flammable and combustible liquids are stored. The storage tanks should be constructed of steel in case they are constructed above grounds. The non-combustible substance can be used for the construction if it is used to store a combustible liquid. The material used for the construction must be that helps the tank to be protected against the fire. In one of the storage tank fires broke out at the island of Palau Merimau, Singapore and the fire started catching tankage containing petroleum, motor gasoline and diesel product. Despite the size of fire and adverse logistics, fire fighting efforts were successful in controlling the fire. This require operational and design engineering considerations, proper fire fighting strategy, prefire and emergency response plans, fire water management and fixed/semifixed system. A permanent water supply, of sufficient volume, duration, pressure, required to properly operate the fire fighting equipment shall be made available as soon as combustible materials accumulate and in the same way underground waters are to be provided, installed and made available for use as early as possible at the place of fire. In case were fixed water protection system is not installed with the tank with flammable or combustible liquids the floating roof to cover on liquid which helps to protect the fire to be broke out. Most fires in this design of tank burn only at the seal and are usually easily extinguished. Tanks with floating roofs are not likely to be involved in serious fires. This is because there is far less liquid surface is exposed to the fire. When storage tanks are not equipped with fixed fire protection then it must contain a stable liquid storage at a pressure 17kPa (gauge). The tanks containing flammable liquids should be normally kept closed for protection of unless the tank is venting. Where drainage facilities are provided to drain water from dike areas, efforts should be made to prevent flammable liquids from entering into any natural resources as it constitute fire hazard. REFERENCE Referred to sites:1. http://www. ofm. gov. on. ca/english/Publications/Guidelines/part4/4commen5. asp SECTION 4. 3 TANK STORAGE Subsection 4. 3. 1. Design, Construction and Use of Storage Tanks 2. http://www. osha. gov/doc/outreachtraining/htmlfiles/subpartf. html Fire Protection and Prevention DEFINITIONS APPLICABLE TO THIS SUBPART Â §1926. 155 3. http://www. ofm. gov. on. ca/english/Publications/Guidelines/part4/4commen5. asp SECTION 4. 3 TANK STORAGE Dated 4th August 2007

Structure of Water and Its Dynamic Hydrogen Bond Network

Structure of Water and Its Dynamic Hydrogen Bond Network Introduction Water is essential to life as it is main constituent of cell in living organism. All biological macromolecules are almost inactive in its structural stability and functioning in absence of water. Water-Role in Life Water is key compound for our existence on this planet due to its ubiquitous presence on the earth and in living organisms. It is involved in all chemical, biological and geological processes. Due to its anomalous behavior it named as ‘matrix of life’, ‘solvent of life’. It plays a vital role from molecule and cell to tissues and organisms.1-4 In past several decades water has attracted the most scientific attention among the liquid due to its anomalous properties. It shows peculiar properties such as negative volume of melting, density maximum at 277 K, high melting and boiling point, high dielectric constant, minimum in the isobaric heat capacity and isothermal compressibility at 308 K and 319 K, respectively, high mobility transport for H+ and OH ions. The density of most liquids increases as it freeze but in case of water it expands about 11% due to which ice floats on water. It is the solvent of life and plays an important role in protein interactions a nd stabilization of protein structure. The work of Kauzmann gives the importance of water in protein folding and its interactions with water.5 Structure of Liquid Water The anomalous behavior of water is due to its unique ability to form a network of self associated molecules through hydrogen bonding. To study the structure of water and its dynamic hydrogen bond network large number of studies has been carried out.1-12 Still many aspects of water are not fully understand at molecular level. Dyke and co-workers first reported existence of H-bonding in vapor phase experimentally and measured the H-bond length as 2.98 Ã… in water dimer using molecular beam resonance technique which is higher than water in solid (for ice H-bond strength 2.74 Ã…) and liquid (2.85 Ã…) indicates the H-bond strength is weaker in Gas phase.13 From X-ray diffraction study of Bernal and Fowler and Morgan and Warren it is revealed that water is tetrahedrally coordinated through hydrogen bonds similar to the structure of ice I (Figure 1.1). 14-15The number of theories for the water structure has been proposed based on different techniques such as X-ray, neutron diffraction, dielectric relaxation and Raman spectroscopy. 16-22. These theories are generally classified into two models as a) Continuum model and b) Mixture model. Figure 1.1 Crystal structure of ice I at low pressure Continuum model In continuum model it is assumed that almost completely hydrogen bonded water molecules in a continuous network. Pople described the continuum model which is agreement with the observed variation of X-ray radial distribution function with temperature. 23According to Pople In continuous bonded network of the water bond bending and deformations occurs instead of bond water. Recently, Rice and Sceats 24proposed Random Network Model (RNM), which explains the continuum model and it is further developed by Henn and Kauzmann. 25This model is used for determining the heat capacity contribution due to water-water interactions. b) Mixture model In mixture model water consists of differently H-bonded species with zero, one or both hydrogens are engaged in hydrogen bonding. Franks and Wen 26 gives the â€Å"Flickering Cluster† model in which cooperative H-bonding is observed in water molecules. The co-operativity involves the hydrogen bond formation of one bonding site of water molecule contributes the delocalization energy to the molecule, which is involved in hydrogen bonding with another water molecule. According to Franks and Wen the clusters of the water molecules (bulk water) and free monomer molecules (dense water) are in equilibrium with each other. Samoilov 27 proposed the interstitial model in which water molecules are present in the cavities of ice lattice. Nemethy and Scheraga 28 used statistical thermodynamic model to calculate the Helmholtz free energy, internal energy and entropy as a function of temperature. Also the water hydrate model proposed by Pauling. 29 Now a days, theoretical techniques such as Monto Carlo, molecular dynamic simulation are used to study structural behavior of water. It provides most promising approach for the study of water at molecular level. Jorgensen 30 has developed transferable intermolecular potential functions (TIPS) suitable for use in liquid simulations for water. This potential has been used by Jorgensen and Madura 31 in MC simulation on liquid water to study the effect of temperature on vaporization, hydrogen bonding, density, isothermal compressibility and radial distribution functions. Number of water models such as SPC, TIP3P, TIP4P, TIP5P are developed for the molecular simulation of large biomolecular systems. Figure 1.2 Frank-Wen Flickering Cluster Model of Liquid Water 1.2 Hydrophobic Hydration and Hydrophobic Interactions The weak non-covalent interactions like van der Waals forces, H-bonding, ion-dipole, hydrophobic interactions are responsible for change in the structure of water around the solute molecule. The hydrophobic interaction is the prominent factor in the solvation of apolar or non-polar molecule. When a non-polar solute is dissolve in water there is large negative change in entropy. The disruption in the normal H-bonded structure is occurred and new H-bonded cage-like structure is formed around the solute molecule. So the structure formed is more ordered than the ordinary water. The term hydrophobic hydration is used when non-polar solute solvated by the cage of the solvent molecule around it. The short lived aggregates are formed around the solute molecule. The formation of polymeric aggregates strengthens the hydrogen bonding which gives negative contribution to ΔH0. 10 The hydrophobic interactions are important in a field of biochemistry for the purpose of conformational stability of biological macromolecules, protein folding, aggregation, ion transport, drug delivery as well as in industry. Usually hydrophobic hydration occurs in non-polar compounds such as alcohols, ethers, and amines. The tetraalkylammonium (TAA) salts with larger cation also shows the hydrophobic hydration effect. Kustov gives the effect of size of cation on the hydrophobic hydration. He studied the specific heat of solution for the higher size cation TAA salts and observed that as the size of cation in salt increases the specific heat of solution and hydration increases upto the tetrapentylammonium salts and then decreases. As the specific heat of solution increases the hydrophobic hydration increases. For the hexyl and heptyltetraalkylammonium salts the ΔC0p decreases so the hydrophobic hydration weakens. Thus hydrophobic hydration depends on the size of cation of TAA. Th e hydrophobic interaction is best explained by Goring et al. by studying the interaction of non-electrolytes in aqueous solutions by dilatometrically. They compared the apparent specific volume (à Ã¢â‚¬ ¢2) relative to apparent specific volume at 0  ºC as function of temperature for non-electrolytes and showed that 1-butanol behaves like hydrophobic compound and acts as structure maker in aqueous solution while glycerol with polar groups disrupts the structure of water. The hydrophobic compound shows the slope dà Ã¢â‚¬ ¢2/dT is less than the corresponding thermal expansions of pure compound while it greater for the hydrophilic compounds. Madan and Sharp explained that non-polar solutes have large capacity heat of hydration ΔCp while for polar solutes it is small negative. The large change in heat capacity at high temperature is due to unfavorable enthalpic interacions and not due to entropy change. The effect of salt on the hydrophobic hydration was carried out by Talukdar and Kundu and observed that hydrophobic cation induce more hydrophobic hydration in aqueous NaNO3 solution than in pure water. Rossky et al. with the help of computer simulation studied the hydration properties of the interfaces between the water and the hydrophobic surfaces for the active peptide melittin in its monomeric and dimeric form and concluded that hydrophobic hydration is depends on the surface topography of biomolecule. 1.3 Spectroscopic study of water Due to its various anomalous properties and great importance in the several field water is the most studied compound. To study the structure of water, number of spectroscopic techniques such as IR, Raman, neutron diffraction, X-ray scattering, NMR spectroscopy etc. have been used still today. The spectroscopy and scattering studies provides the structural information of water at molecular level. Bernal and Fowler analyzed the X-ray diffraction of water and investigated water as distorted quartz-like. The hydrogen bond network in water is found to be tetrahedral in nature and each water molecule can be bound with another four water molecules i.e. each water molecule is double proton donor and double proton acceptor. While recently, Wernet et al. studied the structure of water by soft X-ray absorption spectroscopy and X-ray Raman scattering and investigate that hydrogen bond network in the water consists of only two strong hydrogen bonds and one act as proton door and another as proton acceptor. This controversial result of structure of water from earlier study makes the scientist to study the water structure more interesting. In this context, number of scientists have been studied the water structure by X-ray absorption spectroscopy. Infrared and Raman techniques are also the important sources of the information of hydrogen bonding in water. Above the absolute temperature all the atoms in the molecules are in continuously vibrating motion with respect to each other. Any molecule absorbs the radiation when frequency of a specific vibration is equal to frequency of the IR radiation directed on the molecule. Each atom has three degrees of freedom, corresponding to motions of the three Cartesian coordinate axes (x, y, z). Total no of coordinate values is 3N for a molecule containing N atoms. Thus, Water has 9 degrees of freedom with C2v symmetry. It shows the two stretching vibrations (symmetric and asymmetric), one bending vibration, three hindered rotations (librations), and three hindered translations. Earlier, number of research papers has been published on the study of the structure of water in solid, liquid as well as in vapor phase by IR and Raman technique. The fundamental IR frequencies for the H2O and heavy water is as shown in Table Table: Fundamental vibrations of liquid ordinary water and heavy water Vibration(s) liquid H2O (25  °C) liquid D2O (25  °C) liquid T2O v, cm-1 ÃŽ µÃŽ », M-1cm-1 v, cm-1 ÃŽ µÃŽ », M-1cm-1 v, cm-1 v2 1643.5 21.65 1209.4 17.10 1024 combination ofv2+ libration 2127.5 3.46 1555.0 1.88 v1,v3, and overtone ofv2 3404.0 100.61 2504.0 69.68 2200 http://www1.lsbu.ac.uk/water/water_vibrational_spectrum.html Walrafen investigated the structure of water by Raman spectroscopy in the intermolecular as well as intramolecular vibrational region. From Raman scattering it is observed that for liquid H2O and D2O a broad weak hydrogen bending band at 60 cm-1 and it is observed to be decreases as temperature rise, the band near 170 cm-1 is produced by the stretching motion of O-H band in water molecule. This is also decreases as increases in temperature which indicates the structural breakdown of water units. These vibrations are the intermolecular vibrations of water which are observed in the restricted translational region. The intramolecular vibrations of water occurs in the range of 2000-4000 cm-1.Walrafen studied the Raman spectra of 50 mole % solution of H2O and D2O in the intramolecular region in which principle contribution of HDO vibrations are studied. The two maxima at 3415 ±5 cm-1 and 2495 ±5 cm-1 are referred due to OH and OD stretching vibrations of HDO, and of H2O and D2O. Also the weak band at 2860 ± 10 cm-1 arises from the overtone of the fundamental intramolecular bending vibration of HDO near 1450 cm-1. When H2O, D2O mixture studied at 32.2 to 93  ºC, the isosbestic point observed at 2570 ±5 cm-1 indicates the equilibrium exists between hydrogen bonded and nonhydrogen bonded OD stretching vibrations. Senior and Verrall observed same results when studied the HDO stretching at temperature 29 to 87  ºC by infrared spectroscopy. Bakker et al. studied the lifetime of the OH-stretching vibration in the water as a function of temperature by using femtosecond mid-infrared pump-probe spectroscopy and observed that it increases from 260 ±18 (at 298 K) to 320 ±18 (at 358 K) Recently, molecular dynamic simulation is becomes the fast method for the structural detection at molecular level. Xantheas et al. used the ab initio method to obtain the vibrational frequencies as well as zero point energy for the water clusters and its isomers with the help of second-order Mà ¸ller–Plesset perturbation level of theory (MP2) with the augmented correlation consistent basis set of double zeta quality (aug-cc-pVDZ). 1.3.1 Near-Infrared spectral study of water and aqueous solutions Near-Infrared consists of the region 800-2500 nm (12500-4000 cm‑1) in the electromagnetic spectrum. In this region molecule have energy sufficient to excite first (2ÃŽ ½), second (3ÃŽ ½), and higher overtones (nÃŽ ½) vibrations. The overtones observed in the molecule when the intermolecular vibrations of the molecules do not obey the Hook’s law. The band is more intense when the greater the anharmonicity. The combination bands are also observed in the same region. Near infrared spectroscopy is the basic tool to study the hydrogen bonding in molecule. Earlier, the scientist Luck studied water and alcohol in the NIR region and observed that the strength of cooperativity of H-bond in water is about 250 % stronger than H-bond in a monomeric water. Different species of water present in the cooperative H-bond such as H-non bonded, H-bond strong and H-bond weaker. Ozaki et al. studied the structure of water by using two analytical techniques such as two dimensional correlation spectroscopy and principal component analysis in which they showed the two-state water model by measurements of the water at different temperatures from 6 to 80  ºC. Two bands are observed at 1412 and 1491 nm due to two different species of water i.e. weak H-bond and strong H-bond respectively. The species observed at 1438 nm which has no much effect of temperature which suggested may be due to distorted two-state model of water. The water at high temperature and pressure rem arkably exhibits different properties than at ambient temperature. It becomes good solvent for hydrophobic substance such as benzene and hydrocarbons which are non-polar gets completely miscible at certain temperature and pressure. The effect of high temperature as well as pressure has been given by Ikawa et al. in the range of 5500 to 7800 cm-1. They observed the band at 7000 cm-1 gradually shifts to higher wavenumber is due to free OH vibrations and at 673 K and 400 bar pressure the absorption band retain the rotational features i.e. water molecule quite rotate freely though there is collision with other molecules. Recently, Near-Infrared spectroscopy has been used extensively for chemical analysis and characterization. The applications of NIR spectroscopy in various fields have attracted the scientific community. It is also used in the determination of moisture content in food samples. It can be used to probe the hydration effects in aqueous solutions of salt. Wu et al. have studied the effect of ethanol on the structural organization of aqueous solutions of [Bmim][BF4] and [Amim][Cl] using one-dimensional and 2D correlation NIR spectroscopy. They showed that hydrogen bonding between water and ILs gets reduced in presence of high concentration of ethanol32 and can be used to remove water as an impurity in hygroscopic ILs. They also used this technique to study aggregation behavior of ILs in water. NIR spectroscopy has been used previously for the study of hydration by McCabe and Fisher in which they have studied the hydration of perchlorate and alkali halides in aqueous solutions by using excl uded volume. Koga et al. have given the excess molar absorptivity in the range of 4600-5500 cm-1 i.e. (ÃŽ ½2+ÃŽ ½3) combination band of water for the Na halides and concluded that the Br‑ and I form the hydrogen bond directly with the water network which is different than the Cl ion. Bonner and Woolsey have obtained the hydration number for some alkali halides by using the 958 nm (2ÃŽ ½1+ÃŽ ½3) combination band of water. By applying their method, Hollenberg et al. calculated the hydration number for amino acids and carbohydrates The new concept introduced by Noda in 1993 i.e. two dimensional correlation spectroscopy has attracted many scientist to study effect of solutes on the structure of water by IR as well as NIR spectroscopy. This technique becomes powerful tool for the elucidation of spectral changes induced by temperature, time and concentration. Noda et al. studied the structural and crystallization dynamics of poly(L-lactide) during isothermal cold crystallization by two dimensional correlation spectroscopy. An interpretation of the evolution with temperature of the ÃŽ ½2+ÃŽ ½3 combination band in water V. Fornà ©s and J. Chaussidon, J. Chem. Phys. 68, 4667-4671 (1978) Near-infrared spectroscopic study of water at high temperatures and pressures Yusuke Jin and Shun-ichi Ikawa J. Chem. Phys., 119(23), 12432-12438, 2003. The importance of cooperativity for the properties of liquid water W.A.P. Luck Journal of Molecular Structure, 448 (1998) 131 142. Studies on the Structure of Water Using Two-Dimensional Near-Infrared Correlation Spectroscopy and Principal Component Analysis V. H. Segtnan, S. Sasic, T. Isaksson, Y. Ozaki Anal. Chem. 2001, 73, 3153-3161

Leadership Success Model Implemented By Procter And Gamble Commerce Essay

Leadership Success Model Implemented By Procter And Gamble Commerce Essay Businesses require strong leadership as an unconditional factor for any kind of long-term success. The concept of leadership is exploited by many authors and there are hundreds of attempted definitions, however because of the complexity of the human actions per se, there is no clear, exact and universal one. Since the difference between high-ranking, multi-national companies and those striving to achieve such a status, lies predominantly in the skillful potential shown by their leading proponents, it is crucial to study some successful leadership models. A concrete example of such models is Procter and Gamble Company. Thus the highlights of effective leadership model are applied to this company, where the foundations and underlying structure of such a model are shown in a fashion where simplicity is idealized above all else. Definition of leadership Leader can be anyone who has an empowering vision, ability to motivate and deliver effective results. A little kid who suggests playing a new game which is more cheerful and involves all of the other children is a leader in his playground environment. That little kid encompasses some leadership characteristics which differentiate him from the rest of the group. He is able to propose something different which sounds interesting and promising and which is relevant to that particular group that follows him. A simple analogy can be drawn between that little kid and a grown up in his working environment. The characteristics that one possesses and the input he/she gives to a company determine his/her place in that working environment. For instance an employee, who finds an alternatively less costly way of producing a particular line of products and leads change in the company, distinguishes his/herself as a leader. The fast pace business world we live today does not allow for incremental c hanges, what you need is fundamental improvements. The person who can lead innovation and produces meaningful results should be at the top of the companys hierarchy. Leadership is a key to companys long-term profitability. But, what do we mean by leadership? An attempted definition of leadership is as follows: Leadership is both a process and a property. The process of leadership is the use of noncoercive influence to direct and coordinate the activities of the members of an organized group toward the accomplishment of group objectives. As a property, leadership is the set of qualities or characteristics attributed to those who are perceived to successfully employ such influence. (Jago 315) Basically what this definition implies is that leadership does not constitute only what one possesses but even what one does. The little kid that was mentioned above is not an appointed leader, but by his actions he establishes himself as such. At this point it is important to mention that leadership would not exist if there wasnt a followership. In order for a leader to succeed he needs to be listened to and followed by others. According to professor Stone followership constitutes 50% of the leaders success. If the little kid would scream and threaten to take the playing ball from the group he would not be exhibiting leadership, and most probably the other kids would not even pay attention to him. However, from that group of kids no one is a designated leader, and since leadership is an evolving process anyone who possesses some basic traits can become one. This represents the basis of the link between followers and leaders, leaders become followers and followers become leaders. At the same time leadership is not a restricted process, there might coexist multiple leaders in groups who are specialist to the function they serve. Contingency and continuity leadership What constitutes a successful leadership does not depend on the type of organization or any model that the leader operates. Leadership is a universal phenomenon as mentioned from Jago; It is the same for a corporation president and for the clergyman. (316). It is universal in the meaning that the two of them have to exhibit some essential leadership traits in order to be effective. On the other hand if we consider the leadership contingency dimension different people can express different patterns of leadership depending on the circumstances. Some leaders can be very effective and others can fail depending on the features of the situation and of the group of people they are leading. The earliest contingency theory pertains to Fiedler who asserts that the contingency of group performance related to the leader is based on the following three variables: group atmosphere, task structure, and leaders power position.citation Thus there are two important factors namely leadership style and situational favorableness. For a leader to be effective there should be an interaction between the leader himself and the features of the place where the leader operates.( Jago 316) Meanwhile, it is important to assess the fact that a good leadership model is the one which continuous even after the leader leaves. The continuity aspect of leadership is crucial therefore in determining an effective leadership. For instance if the manager of a company leaves and as a consequence the company fails introducing an assumed new product line, that would be a reflection of fake effective leadership. On the other hand if the company succeeds in introducing the new product line and achieves great revenues that shows that the formal leader was indeed an effective one. Leadership success model Procter and Gamble (PG) is a U.S based company employing 135,000 people in 180 countries including U.S, Europe and Asia.citation It is the worlds largest consumer goods company marketing about 300 brands, with a range of products such as beauty, health, fabric, home, baby, family and personal care. Based on the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats analysis (SWOT analysis) its strengths are: strong focus on research and development (RD), leading market position, diversified product portfolio and strong brand portfolio. As far as the focus on RD is concerned PG invests around $2 billion per year supporting engineers and scientists in different countries. Furthermore, based on its current approach connect and develop PG brings innovation from outside by partnership with external actors. The markets where PG establish itself as a leader constitute about two-thirds of its product categories. Along with that the company has diversified product portfolio of more than 22 product categories in the following segments: beauty, grooming, health care, snacks, fabric care and baby care. An important factor of the portfolio of this company is the range of brands it includes. PG portfolio includes 24 brands which are a crucial source of revenue. This strong portfolio allows the company to be at the top companies in the world by delivering what the consumers expect. Eventually, PG has established itself as one of the most successful companies in the world. The question raises, how does it manage to do so? How does the leadership model contribute to the success of this company? The business world we live today has set up its own rules of competition, change and innovation being the keys to survival and being competitive. The key to effective implementation of these rules is a strong leadership. It is up to the visionary leader to support the business infrastructure to quickly respond to business needs and enable the company to rapidly access information. The leadership model incorporated in an organization is the first and most important brick of success. PG for instance used a leadership program called build from within.citation This program prepares managers in any aspect of their operations ensuring thus that they are ready to climb the next stair. This tactic provides for rapid replacement of any of the top 50 jobs positions. PG recruits school graduates, named in the company as Proctoid, and offers them the opportunity to grow up within the organizations hierarchy.citation Through development of the Proctoids potentials according to their career goals and the needs of the company itself the leadership program ensures the fulfillment of any free working position. Continuous training of the employees who enter the new level is crucial. According to Moheet Nagrath, head of human resources at PG if your direct reports arent ready, neither are you [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] Internal reputation is crucial. citation For instance if an assistant aspires to become a Chief Operating Officer(CEO) he will be provided with all the necessary experience to do so. At the beginning he might be appointed at a lower level where he will be continuously trained until he gets assigned to the desired job. All executives, including the former CEO himself, oversee and train the top employees to occupy the next free spot. In this way, helping employees grow and improve contributes to the companys success as well. The culture of PG provides for high concentration on the people working for the company which assures the discovery of potential talents. It is important to emphasize that leadership traits are not only genetically inherited but are developed through continues and proper training as well. If individuals find the appropriate place and tools to develop themselves, they might turn into future leaders and head towards success. Therefore the PG leadership program is determined in encouraging talent from the inside and even the hiring process rarely occurs from the outside. There are disadvantages related to this kind of approach such as the building of a culture where all employees think alike. However, the most important thing is to realize the disadvantages and find an alternative way of outweighing them. That is a challenge for the leader, the need to undertake changes under pressure of losing the market. Build from within was the leadership program incorporated by PG in the early 2000, but was there a need of change in times of crisis? Who was responsible for designating the appropriate leadership model which would benefit the company billions of dollars and the employees as well? Even though, anyone in an organization has to be the leader in his/her specialization, at the top of the company pyramid stands its CEO. The PG CEO from 2000 to 2010 has been A.G.Lafley, who took the helm in midst of a crisis. At that time the company was totally distracted from meeting its projected goals. The price of the stocks had dropped dramatically and the company had lost $ 85 billion approximately. Citation PG found itself in a crisis, the biggest being a crisis of confidence. Pessimism was characterizing everyone in the companys hierarchy and notions of blame would be interchanged from the units to the leaders and the way around. That is when a true and strong leader can show his/her abilities of leadership. The famous quote of Faye Wattleton The only safe ship in a storm is leadership applies to the case of PG. Faced with such enormous problems up to the point of questioning the continuity of PG as a company Lafley had to prove himself as the leader and drive the company o ut of that ocean of troubles that it was trying to swim. Lafley based his leadership on the statement of Drucker, one of the Americas most famous CEO scholars, who said The CEO is the link between the Inside that is the organization, and the Outside of society, economy, technology, markets, and customers. Inside there are only costs. Results are only on the outside. Citation 3 This expression illuminated the mind of Lafley who could understand his role as CEO between these lines. By finding opportunities from the outside the CEO could enable the success of the company. In order to achieve the projected goals the company has to understand the needs of the outside. For instance, to achieve 4% sales growth the company had to produce a new tide brand.citation 3 Lafley perfectly understood that consumers should be in the center and that is what the company should create, a customer. At this point in time Lafley realized that the insiders of the company new how the organization worked but the input of outsiders were very crucial as well. What Lafley did is identifying the problem and solving it by adding to the model of build from within the connect and develop tactic. This way PG got the ideas from outside and applied its own potentials to them resulting in cheaper and superior products. Lafley is a pure example of showing what a leader should do. In the article written by him what only the CEO can do Lafley takes you to the insight of the job of a CEO. He emphasizes that the leader of the company is the only one who can connect the outside world with the inside of the company. That is the key of a successful leader. In order to connect the outside world to the inside one, there should be taken into consideration four important tasks. The first one is to determine what constitutes the outside, which for PG the most important one is the consumer. According to Lafley the second important task is to determine the business you are in. For instance in his early work as CEO of PG Lafley decided that the core businesses were low-income consumers and developing markets. The next important task is to balance the present and the future. For instance in order to fund long-term debts, PG chose to lower its short-term profits. The fourth task but not the least important is to show the companys values and standards such as trust in PG brands. citation Along with the other important goals stands the development of environmental leadership. PG manages to develop products on economically and ecologically sustainable basis. citation It employs some of the best practices of environmental leadership which deliver green values. The mission statement of PG provides for environmental friendly products which assure superior quality and values for the consumers all around the world. This is a strategic value statement which brings the company more profits as consumers are becoming more aware of the ecological problems and tend to choose products which harm less the environment. Thus, the compliance to environmental friendly products brings competitive advantages to the company itself. The road towards environmental leadership is hard and costly in the short term because there is a need to manage the cultural change of the company and educating the consumers as well. However, due to an effective leadership model undertaking strategic choices PG could outweigh the short-term costs by long-term benefits. The meaningful results of an effective leader Throughout the paper it was emphasized the importance of leadership as a key to companies successes. A.G.Lafley is one of the best concretizations of a great leader. Under his leadership PG market value increased by over 100 billion dollars, sales doubled, profits quadrupled and the companys portfolio brands has grown from 10 to 22. citation mla On average sales and earnings per share have grown by approximately 5% and 12 % a year, respectively. PG stands among the five most valuable companies in the U.S and is also one of the ten most important companies in the world. Lafley was the one who led the transformation of PG, which before he took the helm, did not perform that good on the world and American scale. Due to his abilities as a leader, PG became more consumer-driven and focused more on the external world. He focused mostly on core businesses and brands and tried to conquest firstly the developing market as a strategy to grow further. Lafley has led the transformation of PG. Strategically; he has focused the Company on core businesses and brands, faster-growing and higher-margin beauty, grooming and health care businesses, and winning in developing markets.citation According to A.G. Lafley the first lever to be pulled was getting the company refocused on its purpose and values. Next, he changed the culture to tap outside sources of innovation, developed the chain performance and entered different markets such as China. The Indian market penetration and building of strong supply is an important example as well showing the strategy of PG to enter the market and be innovative. A critical important move to success was bringing partners in to help build the supply chain. Another merit of Lafley and the incorporated leadership program build from within PG has guaranteed its leadership for the next decade as well. At the company level all the managers, including Lafley himself, have been working on creating the next leader, Bob McDonald as the best suitable choice. Lafley, as he leaves the company is very confident in the leadership skills of McDonald and the team that he has put in place. Continuity is one of the most important indicators of a successful leadership; PG seems to have embraced a strong leadership model which will sustain the company for at least the next decade.citation Leadership is an important key factor in guaranteeing long-term profitability for businesses and PG is one the best concretizing example of effective leadership. The attempted definition of leadership mentioned at the beginning of the paper implied that leadership is action and position at the same time. Two important factors determining successful leadership were contingency and continuity leadership. The former shows that leaders can be successful depending on the environment they operate in and the contingent of elements influencing that specific environment. The latter factor is an evidence of effective leadership, because at the moment that there is continuity it is implied that the leader and his model were successful. The definition and the factors of successful leadership were highlighted in the PG Company. It was emphasized that the person who leads the company, for instance the CEO, has a crucial role which only he could do; connect the inner world of the company with the o utside one. A thorough analysis of PG from 2000 to 2010 showed the importance of the leadership program in increasing the profitability of the company and how a leader can face challenges and approach change. The leader stands at the top of the pyramid and he/she is the only one leading transformation. There is no guaranteed model of successful leadership but there always is the chance to channel your energies towards achieving meaningful results.